Phenibut Nootropic Review: Benefits, Effects & Dosage

Phenibut (β-Phenyl-γ-aminobutyric acid hydrochloride) is a central nervous system (CNS) depressant with a unique profile of pharmacological effects. Developed in Russia, it has been employed in clinical settings to treat conditions like anxiety, insomnia, and other neurological disturbances.

Its primary mechanism of action involves mimicking the neurotransmitter γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) and binding to GABA_B receptors in the brain, resulting in potential sedative, anxiolytic, and muscle relaxant outcomes. Phenibut has therapeutic applications, with the potential for misuse. Over-the-counter availability and uncontrolled intake can lead to abuse, dependence, and subsequent withdrawal symptoms.

What Is Phenibut?

Phenibut HCL, scientifically known as β-Phenyl-γ-aminobutyric acid HCl, is a neuropsychotropic substance that traces its origins to Russia in the 1960s, where it was discovered and subsequently integrated into clinical practice. Its primary effects are anxiolytic (anxiety-reducing) and nootropic (cognition-enhancing). At its core, Phenibut functions as a GABA-mimetic, predominantly interacting with GABAB receptors and to a lesser extent, GABAA receptors.

Phenibut HCL stimulates dopamine receptors and acts as an antagonist to a-phenethylamine (PEA), which is an endogenous compound contributing to anxiety. The psychopharmacological activity of Phenibut HCL mirrors that of baclofen, which is a p-Cl-derivative of Phenibut. Diving deeper into its structure-activity relationship, there are pivotal aspects worth noting:

• The position of the phenyl ring plays a significant role in its activity.
• The carboxyl group's presence and its role are vital for its pharmacological actions.
• The optical isomers of Phenibut exhibit different activities.

Comparatively, when placed alongside drugs such as piracetam and diazepam, Phenibut showcases a unique blend of similarities and differences, both in its pharmacological mechanisms and clinical applications.

Phenibut HCL has been utilized extensively in Russia for various therapeutic purposes. It helps alleviate symptoms of tension, anxiety, and fear and serves as a potent aid in enhancing sleep quality in patients battling psychosomatic or neurotic disorders.

It's employed as a pre-operative or post-operative medication. Beyond these, Phenibut has therapeutic implications in treating conditions characterized by feelings of asthenia (weakness) and depression. It also finds its use in the management of post-traumatic stress, stuttering, and vestibular (balance-related) disorders.^[1]

Phenibut HCL was synthesized by Perekalin and colleagues at the Department of Organic Chemistry, Herzen Pedagogic Institute, St. Petersburg, Russia. In its early documentation, Phenibut was referred to as phenigamma.

The drug's pharmacological attributes were assessed by Khaunina and her team. Studies on the in vitro neuronal impacts of PB and its related GABA derivatives were conducted on isolated cat cerebral neurons. By 1964, the first comprehensive review on the pharmacology of PB and its related compounds had been published.

The pharmacological properties of PB, specifically its interactions with GABAA, GABAB, dopaminergic, and benzodiazepine (BDZ) receptors, were analyzed and juxtaposed with those of diazepam (DZP) and piracetam (PIR). A study led by Kovalev evaluated PB's effects on central regulation of circulation.

How Does Phenibut HCL Work in The Brain?

When administered systemically, Phenibut HCL offers a myriad of effects on our central system. It isn't just a one-trick pony; its influence spans various domains of neural activity:

• Inhibition of Reflexes at Low Doses: At modest doses, like 20 mg/kg i.p., Phenibut HCL can inhibit certain food-conditioned reflexes in mice. So, even small amounts can exhibit a noticeable impact.
• Effects on Motor & Exploratory Activities: As the dose rises, specifically beyond 70 mg/kg i.p., Phenibut starts to reduce motor and exploratory activities. Other effects include diminished muscle tone, coordination, and even body temperature.^[2]
• Amplifying Anesthetics: In the presence of Phenibut HCL, the central effects of certain anesthetics, such as ether, chloral hydrate, and barbiturates, become more pronounced. A crucial point for medical professionals to consider during surgical procedures.

Anticonvulsant Effects of Phenibut HCL

While Phenibut HCL doesn't antagonize convulsions from various inducers, it does show some efficacy against specific conditions:

• It can reduce hyperactivity induced by certain agents.
• In some animal models, Phenibut HCL has shown promise in potentiating the anticonvulsant effects of other drugs.
• According to Laptin et al. Phenibut HCL demonstrated antihypoxic effects, suggesting potential protection against oxygen deprivation, which has led to its exploration as a potential nootropic.

Nootropic Activities of Phenibut HCL

Phenibut HCL's nootropic (cognition-enhancing) abilities are intriguing:

• At smaller doses, Phenibut HCL aids in the formation of conditioned reflexes in mice, emphasizing its potential for cognitive enhancement.
• Chronic administration of Phenibut HCL can lead to tolerance against its sedative effects, while its cognition-boosting potential may intensify.

Phenibut's Tranquilizing & Anxiolytic Effects

• It can suppress emotional reactions to pain, similar to Diazepam, but at different doses.
• Its anxiolytic effects seem to depend on the animal's emotional baseline, modifying behavior based on inherent aggressiveness or passivity.

Phenibut's Electrical Impacts

Phenibut's effects aren't just biochemical; they extend to electrical activities within the brain:

• Phenibut HCL influences the electroencephalogram (EEG) patterns in animals, inducing specific spike patterns.
• However, its impact on the electromyogram (EMG) appears to be more limited.

Phenibut HCL offers a vast range of neuropsychopharmacological effects, which have made it an intriguing compound for both research and therapeutic applications.

Phenibut's Mechanism of Action & Benefits

Phenibut HCL has been acknowledged for its GABA-mimetic action, signifying that it mimics the effects of GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid), a major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain.

Here are the summarized mechanisms regarding the central action of Phenibut:

GABA-Mimetic Action:

• Phenibut is known to enhance the release of GABA from presynaptic nerve endings.
• Electrophysiological studies have shown that PB and GABA share similar effects on ion channels of isolated neurons, as observed in Planorbarius corneus.^[3]
• Extensively, Phenibut has been reported to activate GABAB receptors, and in vitro, it binds to bicuculline-insensitive GABAB receptors. Direct application of PB to the substantia nigra of rats produced contralateral rotation, a typical effect of GABA-mimetic compounds. This effect was not antagonized by bicuculline, indicating mediation by GABAB rather than GABAA receptors. However, secondary activation of GABAA receptors by PB hasn't been ruled out​..

Dopaminergic Activation:

• In rat striatum, administration of Phenibut increased the levels of dopamine and its metabolites, suggesting activation of dopaminergic processes, which might be responsible for the sedative and tranquilizing effects of Phenibut. The effects of Phenibut on dopamine or its metabolites were antagonized by pretreatment with haloperidol (a dopamine receptor antagonist) or α-methyl-p-tyrosine (an inhibitor of tyrosine hydroxylase), indicating a dopaminergic component in the action of Phenibut.^[4]

Antagonism of β-phenethylamine (PEA):

• Phenibut has been traditionally seen as a GABA derivative, but it can also be viewed as a derivative of PEA. PEA was thought to function as an endogenous anxiogenic substance, and it's posited that the anxiolytic action of PB could be due to the antagonism of PEA by PB. In experiments, PB and DZP prevented the anxiogenic effects of PEA in animal models of anxiety.

These mechanisms collectively contribute to the central action of Phenibut, which manifests in its anxiolytic, nootropic (cognition-enhancing), and tranquilizing effects.

Pharmacokinetics and Toxicology of Phenibut HCL

According to a case study by Sahagian et al., from the Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care, published on July 12, 2023, a 2-year-old neutered male Weimaraner dog exhibited severe neurological and cardiovascular abnormalities post ingestion of Phenibut (HCL).^[5]

Following the ingestion of approximately 1600 mg/kg of Phenibut, the dog was found unresponsive and laterally recumbent in its urine. The study primarily focused on describing the successful treatment of the aforementioned abnormalities in the dog following Phenibut ingestion.

Phenibut Toxicity and Withdrawal (Toxicology)

A comprehensive systematic literature review titled "Clinical Presentations and Treatment of Phenibut Toxicity and Withdrawal" conducted by Jeremy Weleff et al., and published in the Journal of Addiction Medicine in 2023, shed light on the clinical presentations and treatment approaches for Phenibut toxicity.

The review encompassed 62 cases from 36 studies on Phenibut toxicity or withdrawal. During the instances of Phenibut toxicity, the most commonly reported symptoms included altered mental status, somnolence, psychosis, and movement disorders. Moreover, 48.7% of the Phenibut toxicity cases necessitated intubation.

The treatment predominantly involved the utilization of Benzodiazepines and antipsychotics. In cases of Phenibut withdrawal, symptoms such as anxiety, irritability or agitation, insomnia, and psychosis were prevalently reported. The treatment for withdrawal cases often entailed the use of multiple medications including Benzodiazepines, Baclofen, atypical antipsychotics, gabapentanoids, and barbiturates​.^[6]

These studies provide a detailed insight into the pharmacokinetics and toxicological profile of Phenibut, demonstrating the imperative need for structured treatment protocols, especially given the potential severity of Phenibut toxicity.

Clinical Use of Phenibut HCL

According to Lapin et al, Phenibut HCL demonstrates a range of positive effects spanning from tranquilizing to neuroprotective activities:

• Anticonflict (tranquilizing) Activity: Phenibut demonstrates a tranquilizing activity, similar to diazepam but distinct from piracetam.
• Anticonvulsant Activity: When tested against various putative anxiogens, Phenibut showed varied responses:

• Sedation: Phenibut exhibits sedative effects.
• Activation of Cognitive and Emotional Processes: Phenibut shows a positive influence on the activation of cognitive and emotional processes.
• Central Muscle Relaxation: Phenibut has a muscle-relaxing effect.
• Learning Facilitation: Phenibut positively impacts learning facilitation.
• Memory Improvement: The substance also aids in memory improvement.
• Inhibition of Nystagmus: Phenibut demonstrates an inhibitory effect on nystagmus.
• Affinity to Benzodiazepine Receptors:

• Activation of GABA Receptors: Phenibut does not show activity for GABA_A receptors. Its effect on GABA_B receptors is not evaluated or unknown.
• Anti-withdrawal Activity: Phenibut is effective against withdrawal symptoms induced by substances like alcohol and morphine.
• Antihypoxic Effect: The compound has an antihypoxic effect.
• Neuroprotective in Trauma, Edema, Stress: Phenibut demonstrates neuroprotective properties under conditions of trauma, edema, and stress.
• Augmentation of Cell Energy Potential: It has a positive effect on the augmentation of cell energy potential through its impact on the metabolism of adenylnucleotides.
• Synthesis of RNA: Phenibut does not contribute to the synthesis of RNA.

Side Effects of Phenibut HCL

Below are the common and potentially serious side effects associated with Phenibut HCL:

Common Side Effects:

• Sedation and Sleepiness: Phenibut HCL can induce a state of sedation, leading to sleepiness and reduced alertness.
• Nausea: Some individuals may experience nausea as a side effect.
• Irritability and Agitation: Phenibut can cause irritability and agitation in some users.
• Dizziness: Dizziness is a reported side effect, which might affect an individual's balance and coordination.
• Euphoria: Phenibut may induce a state of euphoria or a heightened sense of well-being.

Serious Side Effects:

• Central Nervous System Depression: In cases of overdose, Phenibut HCL can cause marked central nervous system depression, which might lead to unconsciousness.
• High Blood Pressure and Increased Heart Rate: Some users might experience cardiovascular effects such as high blood pressure and an increased heart rate.
• Muscle Spasms: Phenibut HCL can cause muscle spasms, which may be painful or uncomfortable.
• Delirium and Seizures: In severe cases or in instances of overdose, delirium and seizures are potential side effects of Phenibut HCL.
• Dependency and Withdrawal: Phenibut HCL has the potential for dependency, and discontinuation after prolonged use can result in withdrawal symptoms.

Other Considerations

• Intoxication and Mental Status Changes: Phenibut HCL can cause intoxicating effects and result in changes in mental status.
• Potential Side Effects with Directed Use: While Phenibut HCL is generally considered safe when taken as directed, there are potential side effects that may arise even with directed use.

The side effects of Phenibut HCL can range from mild to severe, and the risk may increase with higher doses or prolonged use. It's crucial for individuals to adhere to recommended dosages and to be under the supervision of a healthcare provider when using Phenibut HCL, particularly given its potential for dependency and the serious side effects associated with overdose.

Phenibut HCL Dosage

According to a study published in Clinical Toxicology (Phila) in April 2022 by Pieter A Cohen et al., they found that Phenibut, has varying quantities in dietary supplements, especially in the United States where it's available over-the-counter despite not being approved by the FDA as a prescription medication.^[7]

The study aimed to analyze the presence and quantity of Phenibut in dietary supplements before and after FDA warnings regarding its use. In the study, four brands of dietary supplements labeled as containing Phenibut were examined. Before the FDA warnings, two of the four brands contained Phenibut, with dosages of 484 mg and 487 mg per serving.

Post the FDA warnings, all four products were found to contain Phenibut, with dosages ranging from 21 mg to 1,164 mg per serving. It was also observed that the quantity of Phenibut increased in three of the four products after the FDA warnings, with quantities per dose being as much as 450% greater than a typical 250 mg pharmaceutical tablet manufactured in Russia.

The dosage of Phenibut HCL for nootropic stacking and cognitive enhancement varies and should be approached with caution due to the substance's potential for tolerance and addiction. Here are the guidelines from different sources:

Starting Dosage:

• It's advised to begin with a low dosage of Phenibut, with recommendations ranging from 200-300 mg per day.
• A similar guideline suggests starting small with a dosage of 250-500 mg, especially if it's the individual's first time using Phenibut.

Dosage Range:

• The dosage can range between 250-1000 mg per day, taken in divided doses.
• Other guidelines suggest a dosage range of 250-500 mg, taken three times per day, which aligns with the recommended dosage of the branded version of Phenibut, Noofen, for anxiety treatment.

Maximum Dosage:

• A maximum recommended dosage of 1.5 grams (1500 mg) per day is suggested, and it's advised not to exceed this amount to avoid potential adverse effects.

Frequency:

• It's important not to take Phenibut more often than three days in a week to avoid developing tolerance and potential addiction.

Nootropic Stacking:

• Phenibut can be stacked with Pramiracetam for enhanced cognitive ability along with a stimulated feeling, which complements Phenibut’s calming properties.

Dosage Adjustments:

• It's always recommended to start with the minimum effective dose and gradually increase as necessary, while monitoring for any adverse effects.

These dosage guidelines and stacking suggestions should serve as a starting point, but individuals should consult healthcare professionals before using Phenibut HCL, especially given its potential for tolerance and addiction.

How Can Phenibut HCL Improve Cognitive Performance in Healthy Individuals?

In healthy individuals, Phenibut HCL may improve focus, reduce anxiety, and enhance overall mental clarity. Its anxiolytic properties can lead to improved social interactions and reduced performance anxiety, potentially boosting cognitive function in stressful situations.

User Experiences and Reviews of Phenibut HCL

User experiences with Phenibut HCL vary widely, reflecting its complex effects on the brain and body. Many users report positive outcomes, particularly in social situations and for managing anxiety. However, it's crucial to approach these anecdotal reports with caution, as individual responses can differ significantly.

What Do Personal Experiences and Reddit Discussions Reveal About Phenibut HCL?

Reddit discussions about Phenibut HCL reveal a mix of experiences. Many users praise its ability to reduce social anxiety and improve mood. Some report enhanced cognitive function and increased motivation. However, concerns about tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal are frequently mentioned. Users often emphasize the importance of responsible use and adhering to recommended dosages.

My Personal Phenibut HCL Experience and Results

Upon starting my journey with Phenibut HCL, I began with a low dosage of 250 mg to assess my tolerance. The first few days were marked by a subtle increase in calmness and a reduction in anxiety levels. I gradually increased my dosage to 500 mg, which I found to be more effective in enhancing my mood and social interactions.

The most noticeable effects of Phenibut included:

• Anxiety Reduction: I experienced a significant decrease in social anxiety, making it easier to engage in conversations and social settings.
• Improved Sleep Quality: I found that taking Phenibut in the evening helped me fall asleep faster and improved the overall quality of my sleep, leading to more refreshing mornings.
• Enhanced Focus and Motivation: During the day, I noticed an increase in my ability to concentrate on tasks, which was particularly beneficial for work and study.

Despite the positive effects, I also encountered some side effects:

• Drowsiness: At higher doses, I experienced drowsiness, which made it challenging to stay alert during the day. I learned to manage this by timing my doses appropriately.
• Tolerance Development: Over time, I noticed a decrease in the effectiveness of Phenibut, leading me to cycle my usage to prevent tolerance buildup.
• Withdrawal Symptoms: After discontinuing use, I experienced mild withdrawal symptoms, including irritability and anxiety, which reinforced the importance of responsible use.

In summary, my experience with Phenibut HCL was largely positive, providing notable benefits in anxiety reduction, sleep improvement, and enhanced focus. However, I learned the importance of moderation and awareness of potential side effects. Responsible use, including cycling and careful dosage management, is crucial for maximizing benefits while minimizing risks.

How Does Phenibut HCL Feel and What Results Were Observed?

Users typically describe the feeling of Phenibut HCL as a sense of calm euphoria and increased sociability. Many report reduced anxiety, improved sleep quality, and enhanced cognitive performance. Results often include better social interactions, reduced stress, and improved overall well-being. However, these effects can vary greatly between individuals, and some users report no noticeable effects at all.

Where and How to Purchase Phenibut HCL Safely and Legally?

Purchasing Phenibut HCL requires careful consideration of legal status and vendor reliability. In many countries, Phenibut HCL is unregulated and can be purchased online. However, its legal status varies globally, and it's crucial to check local regulations before purchasing.

How Much Does Phenibut HCL Cost?

The cost of Phenibut HCL varies depending on the vendor, quantity, and form. Typically, prices range from $20 to $60 for a month's supply (30-60 grams). Powder forms are generally more cost-effective than capsules. However, prices can fluctuate, and it's important to prioritize quality and safety over cost when choosing a supplier.

Understanding Phenibut HCL's Side Effects and Safety Profile

Phenibut HCL, while potentially beneficial, comes with significant risks and side effects. Understanding these is crucial for safe usage and informed decision-making. Its safety profile is complex, with potential for both short-term side effects and long-term risks.

What Are the Known Short-Term and Long-Term Side Effects?

Short-term side effects of Phenibut HCL may include drowsiness, nausea, and dizziness. Some users report headaches or gastrointestinal discomfort. Long-term effects are more concerning and can include tolerance, dependence, and severe withdrawal symptoms. Regular use may lead to cognitive impairment and mood disturbances when not taking the substance.

What Are the Major Drug Interactions with Phenibut HCL?

Phenibut HCL can interact dangerously with various substances. It potentiates the effects of alcohol and other CNS depressants, potentially leading to severe respiratory depression. Interactions with benzodiazepines, opioids, and gabapentinoids can be particularly dangerous. Combining Phenibut HCL with stimulants may mask each substance's effects, leading to overconsumption.

Administration and Dosage Guidelines for Phenibut HCL

Proper administration and dosage are critical for minimizing risks associated with Phenibut HCL use. Understanding different forms and recommended dosages can help users make informed decisions about consumption.

What Are the Different Forms and Methods of Taking Phenibut HCL?

Phenibut HCL is available in powder and capsule forms. Powder allows for more precise dosing but requires careful measurement. Capsules offer convenience but less dosage flexibility. Some users mix the powder with water or juice to mask its acidic taste. Sublingual administration is not recommended due to the substance's acidity.

How Much Phenibut HCL Is Recommended for Desired Effects?

Recommended dosages for Phenibut HCL vary, but typically range from 250mg to 1000mg per day. First-time users should start with the lowest effective dose, usually around 250mg. It's crucial not to exceed 2000mg in a day or use it more than twice a week to minimize tolerance and dependence risks. Individual responses vary, so cautious titration is advised.

Pharmacokinetics of Phenibut HCL

Understanding how Phenibut HCL is processed in the body is crucial for optimizing its use and minimizing risks. Its pharmacokinetics influence its onset, duration of effects, and potential for accumulation in the body.

How Is Phenibut HCL Absorbed, Metabolized, and Excreted in the Body?

Phenibut HCL is absorbed relatively slowly, with peak plasma concentrations reached 2-4 hours after oral administration. It crosses the blood-brain barrier effectively. Metabolism occurs primarily in the liver, and the substance is excreted mainly through urine. Its effects can last 15-24 hours, with some users reporting residual effects for up to 72 hours.

Tolerance and Dependency Issues with Phenibut HCL

Tolerance and dependency are significant concerns with Phenibut HCL use. Understanding these risks is crucial for anyone considering using this substance, especially for extended periods.

Can Users Develop Tolerance to Phenibut HCL?

Yes, users can develop tolerance to Phenibut HCL relatively quickly. Regular use, even at recommended doses, can lead to diminished effects over time. This tolerance development often prompts users to increase their dosage, potentially leading to dependency and increased risk of side effects. Cycling use and maintaining long breaks between doses can help mitigate tolerance issues.

Interactions and Synergies: Phenibut HCL Combinations

Combining Phenibut HCL with other substances can significantly alter its effects and risks. Understanding these interactions is crucial for safe use and avoiding potentially dangerous combinations.

What Substances Interact with Phenibut HCL?

Phenibut HCL interacts with various substances, particularly those affecting GABA systems. It potentiates the effects of alcohol, benzodiazepines, and other sedatives, increasing the risk of respiratory depression. Stimulants may mask Phenibut HCL's sedative effects, potentially leading to overconsumption. Interactions with antidepressants and mood stabilizers are not well-studied but could potentially alter neurotransmitter balance.

What Are the Most Effective Phenibut HCL Stacks?

While combining Phenibut HCL with other substances is generally not recommended due to safety concerns, some users report beneficial effects when carefully stacked. Common reported stacks include combining low doses of Phenibut HCL with caffeine for enhanced focus without jitters. Some users combine it with L-Theanine for increased relaxation. However, these combinations should be approached with extreme caution and preferably under medical supervision.

Exploring Alternatives to Phenibut HCL

Given the risks associated with Phenibut HCL, many seek safer alternatives that offer similar benefits. Understanding these options can help individuals make informed decisions about managing anxiety or enhancing cognitive performance.

What Are Viable Alternatives to Phenibut HCL?

Several alternatives may offer similar benefits to Phenibut HCL with potentially lower risks. L-Theanine, found in green tea, provides mild anxiolytic effects without significant side effects. Ashwagandha, an adaptogenic herb, may help manage stress and anxiety. For cognitive enhancement, nootropics like Bacopa Monnieri or Rhodiola Rosea offer potential benefits with better safety profiles. In cases of clinical anxiety, prescribed medications like SSRIs or buspirone may be more appropriate and safer long-term options.

Evaluating the Value of Phenibut HCL for Cognitive Enhancement

Assessing the overall value of Phenibut HCL involves weighing its potential benefits against its significant risks and considering individual needs and health status.

Is Investing in Phenibut HCL a Good Decision for Cognitive Enhancement?

The decision to use Phenibut HCL for cognitive enhancement is complex and highly individual. While some users report significant benefits in terms of reduced anxiety and improved cognitive function, the risks of tolerance, dependence, and withdrawal are substantial. For most individuals, the potential risks outweigh the benefits, especially for long-term use. Safer alternatives or professional medical advice should be considered for addressing anxiety or cognitive enhancement needs.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ) About Phenibut HCL

Addressing common questions about Phenibut HCL below.

Conclusion: Closing Thoughts

In conclusion, R-phenibut, a controversial supplement first synthesized in the 1960s, has garnered significant attention for its potential anti-anxiety effects. As a GABA receptor agonist and part of the Gabapentinoid drug class, it interacts with the brain in ways similar to other compounds that modulate GABA activity.

Despite its growing use, reviews and ratings of R-phenibut are mixed, with some users reporting benefits, while others caution about its risks. Its effects, though similar to other anti-anxiety agents, remain under scrutiny due to limited research and regulatory challenges.

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2. Lapin, I. “Phenibut (beta-phenyl-GABA): a tranquilizer and nootropic drug.” CNS drug reviews vol. 7,4 (2001): 471-81. doi:10.1111/j.1527-3458.2001.tb00211.x ↑
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5. Sahagian, Michael, et al. “Phenibut toxicosis in a dog.” Journal of Veterinary Emergency and Critical Care, vol. 33, no. 4, 2023, pp. 472–476, https://doi.org/10.1111/vec.13313. ↑
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7. Cohen, Pieter A et al. “Quantity of phenibut in dietary supplements before and after FDA warnings.” Clinical toxicology (Philadelphia, Pa.) vol. 60,4 (2022): 486-488. doi:10.1080/15563650.2021.1973020 ↑